Author: marinscienceseminar

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An Interview With Diara Spain, Ph.D

By Rachael Metzger, MSS Intern

 Ocean acidification is an issue becoming apparent in the effects on both sea creatures and humans. Diara Spain, the Associate Professor of Biology at Dominican University, came to Marin Science Seminar to talk to us about her studies in marine invertebrates and the damage ocean acidification is causing them. 

 To learn more about Diara Spain and what inspired her studies we conducted an interview:


 1. How did you get interested in biology? Is there a time, event, 
or person in your life that inspired you to pursue the study?

I’ve always been interested in biology, really science in general. I grew up in rural North Carolina and as a kid it was expected that you’d spend most of your free time outside playing with your friends and pets.  One thing that sparked my interest in marine organisms were the summer vacations at the undeveloped beaches in North Carolina. 
2. Why did you specifically decide to focus on functional morphology, locomotion in echinoderms, and the mechanical properties of crustacean exoskeletons? How do studying these subjects help expand your view on the ocean and how humans are affecting it? 
The essence of functional morphology is “function from form”, this gives us insight into how biological structures can actually work mechanically or physiologically. I find this compelling, especially when you consider marine invertebrates which have a wide array of morphological features. At first glance locomotion in sea cucumbers and properties of crustacean exoskeletons may seem to have little in common, but both topics are based on skeletal support systems which is my major interest. I’ve learned quite a bit about different marine habitats as well as how populations size and  species diversity has changed from my studies.
3. What is the most interesting study you have done to date?
I’d have to say my work on locomotion in echinoderms, specifically sea cucumbers. These are very unusual organisms and the average person may not know much about them, but when I describe them it never fails to amaze. My students enjoy watching the time-lapse videos, I actually gave a talk at the seminar several years ago titled “Life in the Slow Lane”. My studies on crustaceans are just beginning but I fully expect some interesting stories in the future.

4. How do you hope the ocean will look in 20 years and what are some steps we can take to get there?
The oceans are important for the functioning of our global ecosystem as well as the global economy. I’d like to see a habitat that is healthier for animals (including humans)  to live, play and work. 
An example of a smaller step is decreasing the widespread use of disposable plastics while increasing the usage of recyclable/reusable materials. A much larger step is the approval of ocean friendly policies that support conservation and sustainability while restricting damage and pollutants. 
5. What is your advice to teens and young adults who want to help preserve our oceans and the creatures that live in it? 
The best advice is to become involved, this can be done at multiple levels from local and regional up to globally in a way you feel most comfortable. Every fall there is a International Coastal Cleanup Day, San Rafael’s Volunteer Program coordinates people with specific sites locally. Volunteers and donations are also welcome at marine conservation organizations, some focus on a specific animal like sea turtles or dolphins while others focus on a issue such as ocean pollution or habitat restoration. 

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Ocean Acidification: How the Ocean is Acidifying and Affecting the Organisms That Call it Home

By Zack Griggy, San Marin HS

             Pollution is a global problem. One way to find proof of this is to look to the seas. We all know that the oceans have suffered greatly from pollution, evidence of which can be seen almost anywhere, from areas suffering from oil spills to the huge cluster of garbage floating in the North Pacific Ocean. We also know that many aquatic species are dying and going extinct because of ocean pollution. However, oils spills and trash aren’t the only causes. Another cause is ocean acidification, which is caused by air pollution.
             Ocean acidification begins with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is an essential part of photosynthesis in plants. However, it is also a greenhouse gas, and carbon dioxide emissions have become a global problem. Carbon Dioxide is one of the main contributors to both global climate change and ocean acidification. Carbon dioxide is emitted in huge quantities around the world. Part of these emissions are absorbed by the oceans. This leads to chemical reactions within the oceans to form Carbonic Acid from carbonate and hydrogen ions, which are formed using CO2 absorbed by the oceans. Carbonic Acid is the main cause of ocean acidification. For the past 300 million years, the oceans have had a pH of 8.2, but recently since the industrial revolution, that pH has dropped to 8.1. Estimates say that the ocean acidity may drop by another 0.5 pH
            The effects of ocean acidification can be very harmful to marine ecosystems. Many marine organisms such as arthropods, coral, and plankton will be impacted by ocean acidification. These organisms use the process of calcification to create shells, exoskeletons, etc. Calcification relied on using two ions, carbonate and calcium ions. However, Carbonic Acid also uses carbonate ions, which makes it more difficult for the aforementioned organisms to make their exoskeletons or shells. In addition, when more carbon is absorbed by the oceans, hydrogen ions become more abundant, which makes it increasingly more difficult for the organisms to make their exoskeletons.

Sources:
1. https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/oceans/acidity.html
2. http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/about/news/150203-Ocean-Acid.html
3. http://www.co2science.org/subject/c/summaries/calcification.php
4. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Acidification
5. http://hilo.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/documents/Vol09x06OceanAcidification.pdf

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Insidious Air: Defogging Air Pollution and its Pernicious Effects

By Zack Griggy, San Marin HS

           We all know that smoking is harmful to us, but what if the very air we breathe also contains toxic chemicals? The truth is the air we breathe contains numerous chemicals that have harmful effects on both humans and the environment. As a result, the issue of pollution has been a very important and significant problem. It has driven us to invest in green fuels, manufacture in more eco-friendly ways, and cut down on greenhouse gas emissions. However, the problem of air pollution still remains somewhat untouched. Although emissions have been significantly reduced from vehicles and manufacturing plants, the problem as a whole remains.  Air pollution is known to cause numerous issues for the environment and humans, but particulate matter and ozone pose more immediate threats to human health.
           Particulate matter consists of extremely small particles that are a result from burning and can have huge impacts on lung health. Particulate matter, if small enough, can breach through the body’s defenses (the nose, mucus in alveoli, etc.) and even enter the bloodstream. Clearly, this can cause catastrophic problems for human health, such as decreased lung function, irregular heart beat, heart attacks, or even premature death for people with lung or heart disease. In places like the Bay Area, where there is an abundance of hills, which can trap pollutants in small areas and with larger concentrations, pollution can easily accumulate. To make matters worse, particulate matter also has harmful effects to the environment, which include haze, acidification of water basins, depletion of nutrients in soil, etc. Clearly, particulate matter doesn’t just affect humans. Through depleting the nutrients in soil, particulate matter is capable of killing many sensitive plants and crops. In addition, freshwater acidification known to alter flora and fauna in affected ecosystems via increased acidity and toxicity.
             Ozone is an essential, but toxic, gas. In the stratosphere, ozone forms a protective layer that blocks UV radiation, and allows us to live on land. But the ozone layer and the stratosphere are both a considerable distance away from the Earth’s surface. When ozone is at or near Earth’s surface, it poses a threat to organisms that use that air. Ozone can affect entire ecosystems, beginning with plants. Ozone exposure may cause plants to have decreased photosynthesis, slowed growth, and increased risk of harm from disease, insects, storms, etc. But remember, in an ecosystem, damages at the bottom of the food chain can easily work its way up the food chain. Thus, damages from the plants can affect the entire ecosystem, causing a lack of biodiversity, reduced habitat quality, etc. However, in the case of humans, ozone can be much more pernicious. Humans exposed to smaller amounts of ozone or over a shorter period of time may have decreased lung function, airway inflammation, coughing, painful breathing, increased number of asthma attacks, increased risk of death from respiratory disease, shortness of breath, etc.
            These pollutants, and their effects, might seem unpreventable, but really it is the opposite. Both particulate matter and ozone are either emissions, or formed from other emissions. So, we return to the question: how do we prevent the effects of these pollutants? The answer: cut down on emissions. For example, particulate matter is often released during burning, especially burning wood or coal, so if we curtail our burning of wood and coal, we can reduce the effects and quantity of particulate matter. The choice of whether or not to poison our own air rests with everyone. Be sure to make the right choice

Sources:
1. Sitting by a Cozy Fire – Wood Burning, Air Quality, and Your Health (from notes taken during seminar)
2. What’s Getting into Your Lungs? The Effects of Smoke, Ozone, Allergens, and More (from notes taken during seminar)
3. http://www3.epa.gov/pm/health.html
4. http://www.air-quality.org.uk/13.php
5. https://www3.epa.gov/apti/ozonehealth/population.html
6. https://www3.epa.gov/pm/
7. https://www.epa.gov/ozone-pollution/ecosystem-effects-ozone-pollution

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Don’t Take Your Breath Away: Lung Diseases and What Causes Them

By Rachael Metzger, MSS Intern

The lungs are one the most important organs in the human body, so keeping them healthy should be a priority. Unfortunately, lung disease a leading cause of death in the United States, kills roughly four million people every year. Serious lung diseases might seem unpreventable, but in actuality, most are indeed preventable.

The most common cause of lung disease is smoking, with many deaths also resulting from secondhand smoke. When inhaled, tobacco smoke travels from the mouth through the upper airway and into the alveoli. As the smoke moves deeper into the body it is absorbed and particles are left behind in the airways. These particles contain carcinogens (cancer causing agents) and toxins, which put people at risk for disease when present in any part of the respiratory system.

Lung diseases resulting from smoking, such as lung cancer, are the leading causes of preventable deaths in the United States. This means that the extremely high numbers of lung disease deaths could be cut down immensely if simple actions are taken to prevent them. A study published by the New England Journal of Medicine showed that smoking took off approximately ten years of an average person’s life. But the study didn’t consist entirely of  negative outcomes, it also found that if a person stops smoking before the age of 35 they can gain most of that decade back onto their life. But why risk it? Don’t put a vital organ at such a high risk!
 

More than just tobacco smoke gets trapped in the lungs. Other irritants are ingested in our daily lives. One example is particulate matter which is particles made from a wide variety of chemicals and dirt that come in many shapes and sizes. The particles can be so small that they get deep into the respiratory system and cause lung diseases and other health problems (EPA).  
 
Another irritant to the lungs is the increase in pollen and molds, both of which negatively impact the lung disease asthma. When people with asthma inhale pollen and molds, they can have an allergic reaction which results in the airways becoming narrower, thus making breathing difficult (European Respiratory Review).

Similar to pollen and mold, when inhaled ground level ozone can make breathing challenging and worsen lung diseases. Ground level ozone is created by a chemical reaction between volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen in sunlight. Emissions of these substances mostly come from industrial facilities (EPA).
 
It is easier to stop smoking than it is to alter the climate. Cutting out cigarettes can add years onto a person’s life and prevent the pain and expense that comes from diseases such as lung cancer.
 
Environmental factors that contribute to lung diseases can seem more uncontrollable than they actually are. With some simple steps a person can lessen the effects of lung diseases. These include cutting back outdoor activity during high pollen seasons (particularly important for people with asthma), staying away from urban areas as much as possible, and wearing dust masks if needed. It is never too early to take care of your lungs, take the needed precautions to keep them healthy.

Sources: 
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A Tale of Two Tremors: The Nepal Quake and the San Ramon Swarm

by Zack Griggy, San Marin HS

            The earthquake is an awe-inspiring disaster that can occur anywhere at anytime where two tectonic plates contact. Tectonic plates make up most of the Earth’s crust and move freely, so they can rub up against, move away from, or compress against other tectonic plates, which results in huge amounts of energy. The place where said actions occur are called faults. Earthquakes are the result of rocks along the fault breaking as the faults move. This releases all the pent-up energy from the tectonic plate movement, and results in a tremor. There have been countless earthquakes recorded, but recently, there have been many events in particular that have attracted a large amount of attention in the seismological community, among which include the San Ramon Swarm and last April’s Nepal Quake.

Destruction from April’s Nepal Earthquake

             Since October 15, the town of San Ramon in Contra Costa County, California has been rattled by more than 200 small earthquakes. Thirty of which occurred over two days. The tremors have been small, the largest to date barely reaching 3.2 on the Richter Scale. According to the US Geological Survey, there have been numerous instances of earthquake “swarms,” where numerous earthquakes occur in a close vicinity and in a short period of time. However, the past swarms have occurred over a long period of time, which raised the question of how long this swarm will last. The longest swarm was in the nearby town of Alamo that lasted 42 days with over 350 earthquakes. Residents are concerned about the earthquake swarm but seismologists say that the swarm may be beneficial, because the fault is releasing pent up energy and abating the risk of a large magnitude tremor for years to come.
            However, earthquakes are very capable of wreaking havoc into both the developed and undeveloped world. The recent Nepal Quake of last April is an example of the destructive power earthquakes possess. This quake, centered about 85 miles from Nepal’s capital of Kathmandu, was responsible for the death of over 8000 people and the destruction of over half a

A diagram that shows the risk for earthquakes worldwide

million homes. Millions are still in need of humanitarian aid because of this quake and its aftershocks. The quake reached 7.8 on the Richter Scale, which made this tremor more than 800 thousand times stronger than the strongest tremor in the San Ramon Earthquake Swarm. What really raises concerns however, is the realization that a quake like this could happen almost anywhere. According to TIME, the three cities most at risk for a large magnitude earthquake are Tehran, Istanbul, and Los Angeles. These are densely populated cities, and the fallouts of a large earthquake there could be devastating.

Sources:
1. http://www.ktvu.com/news/east-bay-news/32982571-story
2. http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Small-earthquake-strikes-in-area-of-recent-swarms-6590014.php#photo-8857844
3. http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/hazards/earthquake/basics/causes
4. http://time.com/3882272/nepal-earthquake-death-toll-2/
5. http://time.com/3838716/earthquake-risk-nepal/

To learn more about earthquakes and the science behind them, attend Dr. Diego Melgar’s presentation on Wednesday, November 15, 2015 from 7:30 – 8:30 at Terra Linda High School, Room 207, 320 Nova Albion Way. 

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Modeling Tsunamis and Monitoring Earthquakes: an Interview with Geophysicist and MSS Speaker Diego Melgar

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By Talya Klinger, MSS Intern

How can we meet the computational challenge of modeling and monitoring earthquakes in real time, and how can we anticipate and prepare for natural disasters? Diego Melgar, Ph.D. of the UC Berkeley Seismological Laboratory, is investigating these questions and more. As an assistant researcher, he develops earthquake models and tsunami warning systems using high-rate GPS data, paving the way for better earthquake preparation.

1. How did you first get interested in seismology?
I grew up in Mexico City, where earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes and other natural hazards are a fact of life. I’ve also always liked math and physics, and so, when it was time to go to college and select a program, I looked around and I found a geophysics degree at the National University that studied the Earth and its physics with lots of math. It seemed like a great idea to me!
2. What are some of the most challenging aspects of modeling natural disasters in real-time?
That they are complex and that measurements are sparse. Many things are going on during an earthquake or any other natural hazard, they’re really complicated! Saying something about them very quickly with sparse observations and being right about it is a real challenge.
3. How do you go about making tsunami propagation models more efficient?

We run them in parallel on bigger computers. We can now make very detailed models of the tsunami in less than one minute.
4. How does the technique of real-time monitoring impact geological research and natural disaster preparation?
 Basic research allows us to find out what are the laws of physics and chemistry that make earthquakes and other hazards do what they do, it lets us find about what makes the Earth tick. In turn, the more we know about the physics and chemistry of the Earth the more intelligent we can make our warning systems, we can provide more relevant and precise information in shorter periods of time.
5. Tell us about your work in analyzing the magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Nepal: what did you discover about its source?
Nepal was a very interesting event because in spite of the fact that there were thousands of casualties and widespread destruction, it really could have been a lot worse. Given the state of development of the country we could have easily seen 150,000 casualties like we did in Haiti in 2010, but we did not. After some research we learned that part of the reason for this is that the earthquake rupture was very smooth and that smoothness lead to less shaking than we would have expected.
6. Finally, what advice do you have for students who are interested in seismology, geophysics, or signal processing?
Learn physics, learn math, and learn computers. Earth sciences are an incredibly rich field where these tools are really important. But also go outside, go hiking, look at rocks, notice how each one is different and wonder where they came from. The Earth is a beautiful laboratory and we should enjoy it with our minds but we should also go out and experience it.

To find out more, watch Dr. Melgar’s Marin Science Seminar presentation on November 18th, 7:30-8:30 pm at Terra Linda High School, Room 207.

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Angiosperms: How the Disappearance of Bees Put Flowers At Risk


By Zack Griggy, San Marin HS

          Plants are unique organisms. They have unique cell structures, ways of making energy, and reproduction. There are many different kinds of plants, but a category of plants called angiosperms makes up 80% of plants. But some of these angiosperms are at risk, as bees and other pollinators, which are vital to angiosperm reproduction, are disappearing.
         Plant reproduction varies among different kinds of plants in two significant ways. The two distinguishing factors that divide the kingdom Plantae are seeding and flowering. Angiosperms are the only group of plants that makes both flowers and seeds.

The various parts of a flower.

         Flowers are the reproductive system of an angiosperm. In a flower, two structures in particular play a vital role in plant reproduction. These parts are the pistil and stamen of a flower. The pistil consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. The ovary is a small are in the bulb of the flower where eggs are stored. Atop the ovary is the style, a narrow region of the pistil that elevates the stigma. The stigma is the tip of the pistil that catches pollen and directs it down a tube so it can fertilize an ovule. The stamen consists of anthers and filaments. The anther rests atop a filament, which is a long narrow structure that supports the anther, and produces pollen, which can fertilize ovules in the ovary. The plant uses pollination to move pollen from the stamen to the pistil. However, the anther is not capable of pollinating on its own, as the pistil and anther are separated by a small distance. Something needs to pollenate the flower, whether it be wind or a pollinating insect, for the plant to be able to reproduce.
          Bees are unbelievably important pollinators. According to the Michigan State University, bees play a huge role in the environment by maintaining many plant communities. Many of these pant communities are farmed for food. Most fruits and nuts, along with cotton and alfalfa are maintained by bee populations. We need bees for our food and as our population grows, so will our need for bees. 
          Unfortunately, the bee population has been declining over the past 50 years. The decline of the bee population is due to many causes, including pesticides, colony collapse disorder (in which worker bees leave their queen and a few young and nursing bees), predators, and carnivorous plants. These causes are serious threats to the bee population and therefore a serious threat to us.
          Angiosperms are flowering plants that make up 80% of the plant population. They are at risk because bees, their primary source for pollination are disappearing. This can lead to agricultural problems for humans when bees cannot pollinate all of our crops.

Sources:
http://nativeplants.msu.edu/about/pollination
http://www2.epa.gov/pollinator-protection/colony-collapse-disorder
http://time.com/3821467/bees-honeybees-environment/

To learn more about the disappearance of bees, attend Dr. Amber Sciligo’s research presentation on Wednesday, October 21st at Terra Linda High School, 320 Nova Albion Way, in Room 207 from 7:30 to 8:30. 

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Carnivorous Plants

by Jane Casto, Terra Linda High School Freshman

Carnivorous plants is a term often associated with flies and Venus fly traps. There is much more however, to learn about these organisms, and about their complex functions that allow optimal survival and ideal food supply. Scientists have been unraveling the true genius of these plants for years, and even now, breakthroughs are being made in research. To begin, we answer the question: what is a carnivorous plant? 
Carnivorous plants, or insectivorous plants, are plants that have adapted to consuming and digesting insects and other animals. These plants work in a variety of ways based on their species, of which there are 600 known to man. The basic understanding of the makeup of carnivorous plants is uniform throughout the different species. Carnivorous plants have adapted to a low-nutrient environment, making digestion of invertebrates optimal, as it is a low-nutrient energy method of consumption.
the Venus fly trap’s deadly leaves, the vibrant trap ready for action

In the example of a Venus fly trap, this ability to digest small insects and organisms is remarkably dependent on the transfer of electrical signaling. According to ScienceLine, “Each trap is actually a modified leaf: a hinged midriB . . which joins two lobes and secretes a sweet sap to attract insects.” This modified leaf is constant throughout all carnivorous plants, while the sap it produces varies in color, sweetness, and other qualities. Following the example of a Venus fly trap, the sap can attract virtually any small creature, and thus, the Venus fly trap often digests small frogs along with the usual fly. When the actual trap of the Venus fly trap is open, the red belly is exposed for all invertebrates to see. Once the prey has been attracted to the trap, the lips of the trap, or the lobes, close within one tenth of a second! So how does a plant move so quickly?
The answer is within the lobes of the Venus fly trap, where three or more small hairs lie. These hairs act as sensors, and if something brushes against two of these hairs, or brushes against one hair twice, the lobes of the plant will snap shut within 30 seconds of initial contact.
small hairs on specialized leaf, or lobe, of the Venus fly trap.
The science behind the closing of the trap is in the pressure caused by something brushing against the hair. This mechanical energy is translated into electrical energy, causing a small electrical signal. This electrical signal is enough to open pores within the center of the lobe, which allow water flow between the cells on the surface of the lobe. Thus water is transferred from the inner layers of the cells to the outer layer of the cells. During the transfer of water, the pressure within the lobes is drastically changed, causing the lobes to invert. This is how the effect of the Venus fly trap is achieved. 
These beautiful and deadly plants have a unique way of maintaining survival, and in turn are incredibly interesting to learn about and study. 
More on carnivorous plants and when
insects fall victim to them
during the October 21st seminar,
7:30 – 8:30 P.M.
Terra Linda High School, Room 207
320 Albion Way, San Rafael, CA 94903
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Pollinators, Predator-Prey Relations, and Pursuing Your STEM Interests: an Interview with Biologist and MSS Speaker Amber Sciligo

by Talya Klinger, MSS Intern

Dr. Amber Sciligo, a scientist in the department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management at UC Berkeley, researches the interactions between insects, plants, the environment, and human economies. Whether she directs her focus to examining self-fertilizing carnivorous plants, observing how native bee communities enhance crop pollination, or finding the optimal level of crop diversity for sustainable farming, Dr. Sciligo’s research has important implications for the wild world of botany. Attend her research presentation at Terra Linda High School, Room 207, from 7:30-8:30 pm on October 21st.

In Dr. Sciligo’s words:

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1.      How did you originally get interested in ecology and evolution?

Multiple life events led me down this path. The first was in my high school biology class, when I was taught how to catch insects and curate them as if they were to be kept in a museum (arrange their body parts and pin them so that they would dry out and be preserved). I LOVED it. I thought I would become an entomology museum curator. By the time I entered college though, I had changed my interests and thought I would save the dolphins (this was back in the 90s) and signed up for the marine biology major at UCSC. Then I took a scuba class in my sophomore year and damaged my ears. I realized my place was probably not underwater, so I changed my major to Ecology and Evolution, a new major that had the same prerequisites as marine biology. That’s when I took another entomology class, curated insects again, and was reminded how much I loved them! So from then on, I took classes that allowed me to specialize in the ecology and evolution of plant-insect interactions. And the rest is history.


2. Why did you decide to research sundew plants?

I kind of fell into the study system. Normally, one picks a study system to ask a research question. In this case I had my question in mind (is there pollinator-prey conflict in carnivorous plants in New Zealand and how do they deal with it?) without more than a vague idea of where I would conduct the work. I knew I wanted to study carnivorous plants and to ask this question. I knew that I wanted to go to graduate school in New Zealand. And when I put the two together, I landed on the system of Drosera (sundews), because it was the only feasible carnivorous plant that New Zealand had to offer. At the time, I didn’t realize that Australia, just a hop, skip and a jump away, had close to 200 species of carnivorous plants of many types, while NZ only had 12 species of two types. But I had chosen NZ, so sundews are what I got!


3. How do carnivorous plants satisfy their needs for insect pollinators and insects as food at the same time?

They do a pretty incredible job attracting different kinds of insects to their traps and to their flowers, usually by visual cues such as colors, or by emitting different smells from the traps and flowers. Often, smaller insects like ants and tiny flies will get trapped as prey, which provides the plants with the nutrients they need. Larger flies and bees will visit the flowers to provide pollination. Sometimes pollinators get trapped as prey. Maybe they were visiting the flowers and the trap was too close and the pollinators fall in or get tangled up. This can be bad for the plant if they need that pollinator to bring pollen from another flower in order to make seeds. But if the plant doesn’t need this, if it can self-fertilize without many inbreeding consequences, then catching a big juicy pollinator would provide a great feed for the plant.


4. What impact will your research on crop diversification and bee communities have on agriculture?

My current work is looking not just at how crop diversity improves native bee communities, (which is an important finding on its own as it demonstrates a way to leave land in production and support biodiversity at the same time), but also how crop diversity and other practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, mixing annual and perennial crops, and planting flower strips or hedgerows affect multiple ecosystem services at once, e.g. pollination, natural pest control, and soil and air quality. This allows us to see whether farming techniques that improve biodiversity on a farm provides benefits or tradeoffs to ecosystem services (e.g. plants that attract pollinators might also attract pests, but then they might also attract natural predators of those pests). Farmers don’t think about each of these things independently, they see their farms as a whole system with pests and pollinators, and birds and everything else all interacting at once. So it’s important that if we are going to conduct research that results in management recommendations, then we need to study the farm as a whole too. Otherwise we might make conservation recommendations that are unfeasible and won’t be adopted.


5. What’s your advice for high school students who are passionate about ecology and environmental science?

Find what aspects about these fields specifically interest you and dive in! If you have a more broad interest then seek out as many opportunities as you can to expose yourself to multiple aspects of these fields (there are many) and run with those that bring you the most curiosity and excitement. Volunteer to teach younger children or other community members. Teaching is the best way to learn about something. And look for opportunities to work in research labs at universities. There you can learn what parts of the scientific process you like the most. And maybe you’ll find a system that really fascinates you and you can end up studying that for a senior thesis project at a university, or on your own if you prefer.

I would add that while the scientific research world needs enthusiastic students like you, there are many important roles for people who love the natural world: scientific research is one way to go, teaching in schools or public forums is another, or sharing your values through writing, painting, song or other artistic avenues is also a great way to inspire others around you to pay attention.


6. One last question: do you have a favorite carnivorous plant?

Well, to be honest, I’m not really familiar with too many species. In NZ, there are only 12 species and most of them are really, really small and easy to miss. For instance, my study species ranged from only 1/2”-4” in height. I always wanted to find Drosera pygmaea, whose sticky-trap rosette is only 0.25” in diameter!! It’s no wonder I never found them though…they are so small.

I am also fascinated by the bladderworts (Utricularia spp.). They too are very small and were also at my study sites. You can only spot them when they send out a tiny flowering stalk from the body of water in which they reside. The traps are underwater and act like a vacuum to catch tiny swimming insects. I don’t know how they manage to lure the insects into their little bladders, which is why I find them so interesting. They also have very pretty flowers of bright colors, which is not characteristic of the sundews.
To find out more, come to the upcoming MSS presentation at Terra Linda High School, on Wednesday, October 21st, 7:30 to 8:30 p.m. at Terra Linda High School, 320 Nova Albion Way in Room 207. 
Dr. Amber Sciligo’s Marin Science Seminar profile
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E-Cigarettes: A Subtle Danger?


By Zack Griggy, San Marin HS

          E-cigarettes, or electronic cigarettes, are marketed as a healthier and safer cigarette. But is it really? Multiple organizations, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization have found that they are not at all safer that traditional cigarettes.

Newer e-cigarettes sometimes don’t resemble
traditional cigarettes at all.

          A traditional cigarette burns the leaves from the tobacco plant. Tobacco is a plant that naturally contains nicotine, the main addictive agent in cigarettes. Nicotine is also used as a strong insecticide and is so strong that a drop of pure nicotine can kill a person. When tobacco is burned, nicotine is released in the smoke. The smoker can then inhale the smoke and experience a high feeling, which is caused by excess levels of dopamine from the nicotine. In addition to

tobacco,cigarettes can also contain thousands of toxic chemicals, the purpose of which could be anything from making cigarettes combustible to enhancing the addictive effects of the nicotine.

          An e-cigarette, on the other hand, vaporizes liquid nicotine, and releases vapor. The process of smoking e-cigarettes was dubbed “vaping” because of this process. The e-cigarette is composed of a cartridge that contains e-liquid, an atomizer that heats the e-liquid, a battery, a sensor that determines when someone is taking a drag and activates the atomizer, and, sometimes, a light that simulates smoking. When a person decides to take a puff of the vapor, the sensor detects this and activates the light and atomizer. The atomizer, once activated, vaporizes the e-liquid and then releases the vapor so it can be inhaled.

E-cigarettes are composed of five parts. The orange section is
composed of the sensor and cartridge. The metallic silver section is the
atomizer. The white section is the battery and light.

          E-cigarettes are widely marketed as a safer way to get high off of nicotine, but the FDA has found that contrary to the marketing, e-cigarettes are not safe. E-cigarettes are not yet regulated by the FDA. This means that e-cigarette manufacturers do not have to list any or all of the nefarious substances found in the e-liquid. So, when someone “vapes,” they inhale all sorts of unknown chemicals. With
e-cigarettes, one might be inhaling a few toxic chemicals or a few thousand. However, e-cigarettes are slightly healthier than traditional cigarettes, mainly because e-cigarettes do not result in as much smoke as traditional cigarettes.
          To make matters worse, e-cigarette use is on the rise. E-cigarettes were invented in 2003, but has only recently gained popularity. Now, it is the most commonly used tobacco product in US high schools, and from 2013 to 2014, e-cigarette use among high school students tripled from 660,000 students to over 2 million students. E-cigarette use is clearly a growing problem. Marketing, mostly the TV marketing, was attributed to this recent spike in e-cigarette usage.
          E-cigarettes in spite of their marketing, are not safe products. E-cigarettes contain nicotine, a poisonous chemical, and all sorts of other unknown toxins. Because of marketing, e-cigarette use is increasing. E-cigarettes are slightly healthier than traditional cigarette because there is not nearly as much smoke produced.
       
Sources
1.http://healthliteracy.worlded.org/docs/tobacco/Unit4/1whats_in.html
2.http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/tobacco/what-are-medical-consequences-tobacco-use
3.http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/vaping-101-how-do-e-cigarettes-work-n88786
4.http://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/5-facts-about-e-cigarettes-fda-no-its-not-ban-n88746
5.http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0416-e-cigarette-use.html

To learn more about e-cigarettes and the risks attributed to them and other important health issues, be sure to join us Wednesday, October 7th, to hear Julie Pettijohn MPH of the California Department of Public Health discuss these important topics at Terra Linda High School, 320 Nova Albion Way, in Room 207 


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